TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: Subsequent release of pathogen-associated and damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs) further amplifies immune cell activation, resulting in a hyperinflammatory state or “cytokine storm.” This cytokine storm is characterized by elevated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IP-10, and CCL2, which exacerbate tissue injury, severe lung inflammation, and predispose patients to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and systemic organ dysfunction (88–90).