M1 macrophages are activated by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and IL-12, and are characterized by their ability to produce nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), promoting direct tumor cell killing and enhancing Th1 responses through major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-mediated antigen presentation (Murray et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2023). This evidence concerns the gene TNF and neoplasm.