TNF and infection: Analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokines showed a slight but significant increase of IL-6 (5400 ± 6486 vs. 7812 ± 9179 pg/mL), which also peaked at 72 h post infection (Supplementary Fig. 1 C), TNF-α (5.4 ± 7.4 vs. 8.9 ± 7.6 pg/mL), GM-CSF (79 ± 82 vs. 146 ± 154 pg/mL), and MCP-1 release (7445 ± 9255 vs. 12917 ± 16858 pg/mL) after hPIV-3 infection.