Crucially, a ground-based study simulating the long-duration spaceflight environment (which included circadian rhythm disruption) demonstrated a significant inhibition of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway in the brain, which was associated with cognitive impairment (Wu et al., 2017), This provides direct evidence that circadian alterations in spaceflight can impact mTOR activity, underscoring the importance of this axis in maintaining physiological homeostasis under challenging conditions. Here, MTOR is linked to Cognitive impairment.