TNF and Insulin resistance: Experimental studies have shown that high-sodium diets reduce insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) phosphorylation and glucotransporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation, and increase the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), which exacerbates insulin resistance [59,67].