CCL2 and gestational diabetes: GDM-A-MSCs have increased expression of pro-inflammatory genes, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), CD40 and cathepsin S (CTSS), and downregulation of anti-inflammatory interleukin-33 (IL-33) and prostaglandin–endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) alongside a reduction in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels [17].