INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Critically, skeletal muscle mitochondrial dysfunction serves as a central mechanism exacerbating insulin resistance in T2DM: reduced mitochondrial content, impaired oxidative capacity, and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production disrupt energy metabolism, promote intramyocellular lipid accumulation, and damage insulin signaling pathways (Apostolova et al., 2023; Ruegsegger et al., 2018; Lecce et al., 2025).