NLRP3 and infection: In addition, Li et al. (54) found that EV-A71 infection induces apoptosis through reactive oxygen species (ROS) and sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) activation; Wang et al. (55) showed that E11 infection activates the NLRP3 inflammasome to drive pyroptosis; and Wang et al. (56) further reported that EV-A71 induced autophagy by inhibiting mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and activating extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling.