TLR4 and Parkinson disease: Echoing prior studies, we noted a marked increase in microglial and astrocytic activation within the brains of PD patients – a hallmark of CNS inflammation.[14,15,17–19,41,45,47] This activation is orchestrated via pathways such as TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3, p38/MAPK, and JAK2/STAT3,[36] catalyzing neuroinflammation.