TLR4 and inflammatory response: Furthermore, the 3,5,7-trihydroxy arrangement of kaempferol facilitates its interaction with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), thereby blocking lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-κB activation and attenuating liver inflammation (Niziński et al., 2025; Qu et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2024).