Second, it drives M1 macrophage polarization to suppress CRC: In CT26 tumor-bearing mice, intraperitoneal inosine (5–50 mg/kg/day) dose-dependently upregulates M1 markers and reduces M2 markers, with 50 mg/kg achieving 47.39% tumor inhibition via NF-κB/IL-1β activation (199). Here, NFKB1 is linked to neoplasm.