Four studies estimated the diagnostic performance of GDF-15 in identifying HFpEF from controls (non-HF population (Sinning et al., 2017), obese with normal LV function (Baessler et al., 2012), non-CAD and non-HF population (Santhanakrishnan et al., 2012), and population without HFpEF, dilated cardiomyopathy, and ischaemic cardiomyopathy (Jirak et al., 2020)). This evidence concerns the gene GDF15 and hydrops fetalis.