GPNMB and central nervous system cancer: Given that GPNMB is also involved in autophagy regulation and tumor cell survival in gliomas, the mechanism of HPSE action in this study can provide insights for subsequent investigations into whether GPNMB exerts its effects through a similar “specific subcellular localization + dual activity” mode and whether it is associated with core autophagic pathways such as MTORC1.