TNF and neoplasm: M1 macrophages inhibit angiogenesis and induce tumor cell apoptosis by secreting pro-inflammatory factors such as TNF-α, IL-12, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), whereas M2 macrophages promote tumor progression and metastasis by secreting anti-inflammatory factors such as IL-10 and TGF-β, thereby suppressing immune surveillance, stimulating angiogenesis, and remodeling the extracellular matrix (23–25).