TNF and atherosclerosis: Several pro-inflammatory cytokines have been found to play a key role in the development of atherosclerosis, for example, TNFα produced by CD4 + T cells and myeloid cells, IL6 that depending on the disease stage, can be either pathogenic or protective, and IL1β produced by myeloid cells, responsible for vascular wall inflammation, due to the upregulation of adhesion molecules by endothelial cells as well macrophage activation [60–64].