CCL2 and inflammation: Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress play a key role in this pathological process by activating the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), which in turn promotes the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules, such as Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 (VCAM-1), Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1), E-selectin, Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1).