TLR4 and diabetes mellitus: Notably, Astragalus polysaccharides act as ligands for TLR4 due to their unique structure (147) and can induce the activation of NF-κB and the release of cytokines in RAW264.7 macrophages through the phosphorylation of TLR4-related MAPK pathways (148) Evidence supports the role of Astragalus polysaccharides in mitigating diabetes and exhibiting anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro.