INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Figure 2C shows insulin levels. The T1D group exhibited a significant decrease in insulin levels compared to the NC group (p < 0.01). Importantly, no significant changes were observed in the DI and DL groups (p = 0.3883 and p = 0.9940). Figure 2D shows glycated serum protein (GSP) levels. The T1D group exhibited a significant increase in GSP levels compared to the NC group (p < 0.01). However, compared with the T1D group, the DI and DL groups showed a significant decrease in GSP levels (both p < 0.01).