TNF and Hyperglycemia: In parallel, hyperglycemia and oxidative stress stimulate the expression of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), leading to leukocyte infiltration, microglial activation, and the establishment of a chronic inflammatory state in the retina.