LPS activates TLR-4 on Kupffer and hepatic stellate cells, stimulating the release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and pro-fibrotic mediators such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), thereby linking microbial products directly to liver inflammation and fibrogenesis [41]. This evidence concerns the gene TNF and inflammation.