INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Multiple studies demonstrate their hypoglycaemic and lipid-lowering effects, which arise through several pathways: upregulation GLP-1R expression to stimulate insulin synthesis and secretion, enhancing antioxidant defences (e.g., increased SOD activity), promoting pancreatic β-cell proliferation, inhibiting of β-cell apoptosis, and elevation adiponectin levels in T2DM patients (37, 38).