INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: CA (3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid), a phenolic acid with antioxidative properties, stimulates insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells, effectively mitigating postprandial hyperglycemia in T2DM.[18] EDP, a semi-synthetic estrogen, enhances GLUT4 expression via the PKC and AMPK pathways, promoting glucose uptake in L6 skeletal muscle cells through Ca2+-dependent mechanisms.