TGFB1 and cancer: On the one hand, the activation of the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in cancer and related disorders can stimulate the proliferation of carcinomas and increase the proliferation and dissemination of carcinoma cells, thereby expediting the progression of cancerous diseases (6) and leading to a decrease in the sensitivity of cancer cells to clinical drugs and thus reducing the effectiveness of anticancer drugs (7).