In addition, the granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-secreting whole-cell cancer vaccine (GVAX) composed of inactivated cancer cells genetically modified to secrete cytokines and GM-CSF for pancreatic cancer, peptide vaccines for melanoma, toll like receptor agonists for gliomas, and human papillomavirus vaccination for high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, reportedly induced TLSs and improved prognosis [52–55]. Here, CSF2 is linked to central nervous system cancer.