TLR9 and malaria: Monocytes produce inflammatory cytokines to malaria parasites via several pathways14, including via TLR2 and TLR4 recognition of Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors43, TLR8 responding to Plasmodium RNA59, TLR9 responding to hemozoin and Plasmodium DNA60, and via TLR4 binding hemozoin bound with parasite proteins61.