AFP and neoplasm: Numerous tumour markers are currently employed in clinical diagnostics, including proteins (such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) [10], phosphatidylinositol glycoprotein-3 (GPC-3) [11,12], prostate-specific antigen (PSA) [13,14], and carbohydrate antigens [15]), nucleic acids, and other biomolecules [16].