Moreover, myocardial hypertrophy is a hallmark pathological feature of DCM [42], and earlier studies have demonstrated that HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice exhibit elevated hypertrophy markers such as ANP, BNP, and β-MHC, while 8 weeks of HIIT alleviates myocardial hypertrophy in aged DCM rats [43,44]. Here, NPPA is linked to cardiac hypertrophy.