Given the pleiotropic role of TNF-α in terms of inflammation (e.g., TNF-α induces IL-8 and other inflammatory mediators in airway cells via the activation of NF-kB, thereby amplifying inflammation), it has been hypothesized that monoclonal TNF antibodies (e.g., infliximab, etanercept, golimumab) may be effective in COPD and thus emphysema [112]. Here, TNF is linked to pulmonary emphysema.