INS and diabetes mellitus: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is primarily classified into three types: type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), accounting for approximately 5–10% of cases, is caused by the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β-cells [2,3,4]; type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) represents the majority of cases, around 90–95%, and is marked by insulin resistance and a relative deficiency in insulin secretion [2,3]; and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), meanwhile, refers to varying degrees of hyperglycemia that occur during pregnancy [1,2].