TNF and colorectal carcinoma: These bacteria can activate the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway through their metabolic products, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), triggering the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and leading to increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-6, and CRP, which are strongly associated with a higher risk of CRC (Sheikh et al., 2021; Panyathep et al., 2023).