CSF2 and neoplasm: Within the tumor microenvironment (TME), OV-infected tumor cells secrete immunomodulatory cytokines such as granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IFN-α, and chemokines that facilitate immune cell recruitment while downregulating immunosuppressive cells and molecules, thereby orchestrating a comprehensive reprogramming of the TME (18, 22, 23).