TNF and cancer: Pathway enrichment analysis identified significant involvement of cancer-related pathways (p = 3.2e-5), TNF signaling (p = 1.8e-4), and actin cytoskeleton regulation (p = 4.7e-3), providing mechanistic insights into the enhanced therapeutic effects observed (Bharat B, 2003; G et al., 2020; Hon Yan Kelvin and Antonella, 2021).