TLR4 and colitis: F. nucleatum is known to be involved in colorectal cancer (CRC) and colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) progression and metastasis through EMT by triggering the production of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) by activating the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NOD1/2 pathways (187) or by triggering epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling (188).