GDF15 and inflammation: Lu WH et al. [23] found that elevated levels of inflammation-relatedbiomarkers in plasma, such as growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15), areassociated with lower levels of IC and rapid declines in IC among the elderly.Age-related chronic inflammation increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases[24], with elevated GDF-15 levels indicating poor cardiovascular outcomes [25].This suggests that IC impairment may share underlying pathophysiologicalmechanisms with cardiovascular diseases.