EPCAM and cancer: To validate the above findings, we analyzed our spatial proteomics data and found that a proportion of EPCAM+ cancer cells (median, 10,212; range: 150–167,784) also expressed HLA-A (Fig. 4c), with a median ratio of 5.79% (range, 0.3–64.63%; Fig. 4d and Supplementary Table 5).