TLR2 and neoplasm: This suggests that the observed antitumor effects are partially mediated by a reduction in chronic stress, in addition to direct cytotoxic effects on tumor cells.60 Furthermore, a recent study by Fan et al. demonstrated that A. muciniphila suppresses CRC progression by activating the TLR2/NLRP3 signaling pathway and promoting the M1-like polarization of tumor-associated macrophages.37 These findings suggest that, in addition to the effects mediated by OMV release, A. muciniphila modulates the tumor immune microenvironment to inhibit tumor growth.