TNF and Parkinson disease: Immunofluorescence staining analysis revealed that compared to the control group, PD-model mice exhibited significantly increased expression of the microglial marker Iba-1 (Figure 3A–C, p < 0.001), along with enhanced co-localization of Iba-1 with the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β (Figure 3A,D, p < 0.001) and TNF-α (Figure 3B,E, p < 0.001).