Experimentally, SPINK1 was upregulated in OSCC cell lines (SCC9, SCC25, CAL27, HN4, HN30) compared to HOK, consistent with its oncogenic role in other cancers, such as non-small cell lung cancer (MEK/ERK activation)and hepatocellular carcinoma (Wnt/β-catenin signaling) (22, 56). Here, SPINK1 is linked to hepatocellular carcinoma.