Notably, tumors from the GCDH-overexpressing group showed reduced levels of DDR markers (p-ATR, p-Chk1, and RAD51), along with increased expression of autophagy-related proteins (Fig. 4N), further supporting the role of GCDH in modulating both DDR and autophagy in HCC. This evidence concerns the gene GCDH and hepatocellular carcinoma.