SASP establishment in PAH pathogenesis and exacerbation is also suggested by the increased blood levels of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TGFβ, MCP1, TNFα and different interleukins (e.g. IL-1α/β, -2, -6, -8), which expression is associated with patient survival [144–146] (Table 1). Here, TNF is linked to pulmonary arterial hypertension.