One suggested mechanism is that air pollutants can disrupt iron homeostasis by chelating or displacing iron from pivotal sites in the cell, which results in absolute or functional cell ID, which could contribute to increased risk of IDA with long-term exposure to air pollutants (appendix p. 32).207 In addition, air pollutants are potent oxidants and can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), contributing to oxidative stress.208 Air pollution may also cause sterile inflammation208 or increase the risk of infection; this may trigger hepcidin, resulting in anaemia of inflammation.209. Here, HAMP is linked to anemia (phenotype).