TNF and neoplasm: M1 macrophages play a crucial role in enhancing tumor cell cytotoxicity, either directly by releasing cytotoxic molecules such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), or indirectly by activating natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T cells through cytokine signaling (e.g., interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)) [33,34].