TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: An in vitro study by Han et al. observed that the formation of dCGNs by the intestinal microbiota significantly increased the production of nitric oxide (NO2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and proinflammatory cytokines like IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, which suggests a possible link to the development of IBD [43].