CASP3 and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: For instance, Gal-9 induced apoptosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC, Figure 5) via activation of caspase-3, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) to cause mitochondrial dysfunction in vitro and in vivo [160].