IRS1 and Cognitive impairment: This degraded state activates GSK3β, leading to hyperphosphorylation of Tau protein and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines with increased neurotoxicity; biomarkers such as advanced glycation end products (AGEs), IRS1, TNFα, hs-CRP, leptin, IL1β, and IL6 suggest potential diabetes-related cognitive impairment [23,24].