CCL2 and colitis: TNF-α (Figure 6E) and MCP-1 (Figure 6F) were significantly upregulated in the vehicle-treated colitis group compared to healthy controls (0.6 ± 0.1 vs. 2.9 ± 0.4 and 2.5 ± 0.3 vs. 32.6 ± 5.0, respectively; p < 0.0001), highlighting the activation of macrophages and monocyte recruitment in the inflamed colon.