TGFB1 and astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma): Out of the 110 genes associated with the TGF-β signaling pathway (KEGG hsa04350), one-way ANOVA identified 27 genes as significantly differentially expressed between grade II (G2) and higher-grade (G3/G4) astrocytomas (fold change [FC] > 1.50 or <–1.50; p < 0.05; Table A1).