LCN2 and brain neoplasm: Several urinary biomarkers—including matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2, MMP-9), neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)—have demonstrated high sensitivity (95.2%), specificity (95.7%), and accuracy (92.5%) in detecting primary brain tumours, including GBM (see Table 2).