ELK1 and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: Using NSCLC cells as well as head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, this 2011 study showed that IGFBP-3 leads to decreased ERK1/2 phosphorylation, by direct interaction with the MAPKs (in a non-IGF-dependent manner), thus limiting ELK1’s transcriptional activity [47].