These limitations highlight critical needs for future research: 1) Cross-cohort validation in diverse populations to verify CD39’s diagnostic robustness across demographics and geographic settings; 2) Multi-omics integration (e.g., proteomics/metabolomics) to substantiate transcriptional findings and uncover CD39’s mechanistic roles; 3) Prospective clinical trials validating CD39’s diagnostic utility, particularly in combination with TB-antigen-responsive genes; and 4) Preclinical assessment of CD39 inhibitors in Mtb-infected models to assess therapeutic potential. Here, ENTPD1 is linked to tuberculosis.